Bad Odor and Bio-filtration Solutions

Bad Odor and Bio-filtration Solutions Mikhail Kachmazov UQ: How have microbes solved a local or global problem? The specific problem or issue: Sewage and industrial plants situated near residential areas can produce unpleasant odors making it difficult to live there. Explain the problem: The sewage plants near residential areas can be a subject to the social and environmental problems if these facilities produce unpleasant odors. The causes of the odors are generally the inorganic and volatile organic compounds which result from bio filtration and from the sewer of industrial waste. There are different types of volatile organic compounds that are emitted as a result of bio filtration like 2-butanone, ÃŽ ±-pinene, tetrachloroethylene, dimethyl disulfide, ÃŽ ²-pinene, limonene, phenol and benzoic acid. One of the main culprits for the bad odor are sulphur compounds which are relatively less in concentration but play significant role in odor causing factors.[5] Explain how science is helping, or has helped, to solve the problem: Bad odor from sewage water is a major environmental issue worldwide. Bad odor from sewage water is an indicator of possible health risk therefore governments spend a lot of money on treating the sewage water and unpleasant odor. Science has played a major role in solving this problem biologically as well as chemically. Following are several methods to treat sewage water and odor from this water. Bio filtration Thermal Oxidation Chemical Thermal oxidation burns the odor causing compounds directly or indirectly. Bio filtration on the other hand oxidizes the odor causing compounds by using microbes. Microbes like Pseudomonas Putida that are used in this technique have been significant in treating sewage water and bad odor in an efficient, safe and inexpensive way. [4] How it works: Bio-filtration is quite an innovative technology to control pollutants. It helps to eliminate malodorous gas emissions and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) of low concentrations. The most common design of a bio-filter is just an ordinary big box. Some of them can be very big, others can be quite small. A bio-filters main function is to bring microorganisms together with pollutants in an air stream. The bio-filter which has the breeding material for the microorganisms is placed inside the box. The â€Å"biofilm†, which is a layer of moisture where the microorganisms live, can be found around the particles of filter media. When the bio-filtration process takes place, the operators pump the polluted stream of air through the bio-filter, so that the filter media absorbs the pollutants. The bio-filter diffuses the contaminated gas and sends it onto the biofilm that absorbs it. The pollutants are then degraded by the microorganisms. The metabolic products of this process are carbon dioxide and water as well as the produced energy. The chemical formula of this process caused by oxidation is: Volatile Organic Pollutant + O2à ¯Ã†â€™Ã‚  CO2 + H2O + Heat + Microbial Biomass [3] Effectiveness of this technique: This technique is very efficient and it has plenty of advantages over the traditional methods of pollutants. First of all, one of the major conditions for traditional methods is high temperature, however when it comes to bio-filtration the technicians can use low temperatures, thus the whole process becomes cost effective, because there are no costs of combustion. Moreover it is safer than traditional methods because combustion is a dangerous process. Secondly, the maintenance cost of bio-filtration is much lower than traditional methods. According to a research conducted by Pinchin Environmental Group Canada, this technology is more than 95% efficient and environmentally friendly because the whole process can be done in an absolutely natural way. [1] Limitations of this technique: Even though this is an effective method it still has some limitations that restrict the implementation of this technique. First of all the bio-filtration is not able to remove all the organic substances from the water, for instance, those with low rates adsorption or degradation like chlorinated VOCs. Moreover this technique requires a large area to be installed in case it will need to treat a large amount of water. Finally, acclimation periods for populations of microbes may be as long as weeks or months, in particular for volatile organic compounds treatment. Applications of Bio-filtration: Even though the simple forms of bio-filters can be used by general public, the main uses are in the commercial areas. The following industries apply VOC: Chemical and petrochemical industry Synthetic resins Paint production Oil and gas industry Pharmaceutical industry Treatment of wastewater Remediation of Soil and Groundwater The following industries apply odor abatement applications: Treatment of sewage Slaughter houses Gelatin and glue plants Rendering Agricultural processing Tobacco, sugar and cocoa industry Fragrance and flavor Environmental, health and social impact: This technique is environmentally friendly because it does not damage the environment and it does not pollute the air or anything. It’s eco-friendly because the process is natural and does not harm the nature of the Earth, it is also been called a â€Å"green technology†. Moreover, it has positive health impact on the society, because the process of bio-filtration does not involve any chemical substances and does not produce any harmful chemical by-products. Basically, the only by-products of the process of oxidation used in bio-filtration are water and carbon dioxide, which makes this technology extremely clean and safe. Conclusion: To conclude I want to say that the bio-filtration process is an effective process that is used frequently nowadays. Even though it has its own limitations and disadvantages, still it is one of the most promising, environmentally friendly and efficient technologies, that combines both simplicity and effectiveness, therefore it is a viable alternative to traditional methods of sewage water treatment. Sources: Odour Complaints. Pinchin Environmental. N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Feb. 2014. http://www.pinchin.com/air/news/odour-complaints Pseudomonas Putida. Pseudomonas Putida. Kris Hamilton, n.d. Web. 06 Feb. 2014. http://web.mst.edu/~microbio/bio221_2007/P_putida.htm WHAT IS BIOFILTRATION? WHAT IS BIOFILTRATION? N.p., n.d. Web. 08 Feb. 2014. http://missmason230.tripod.com/ â€Å"Sewage and Wastewater Odor Control† by Dr. Giancarlo Riva, Ozono Elettronica Internazionale, Muggio, Italy Anthony Sacco, Spartan Environmental Technologies, Mentor, OH, USA  http://www.cwtozone.com/uploads/SalesDocs/Markets/Air%20Treatment/Papers/Technical%20Papers/Municipal-Odor-Control-Italy%20TP.pdf â€Å"Detection, Composition and Treatment of Volatile Organic Compounds from Waste Treatment Plants† by Xavier Font, Adriana Artola and Antoni Sà ¡nchez , Composting Research Group, Department of Chemical Engineering, Universitat Autà ²noma de Barcelona, 08193-Bellaterra (Cerdanyola del Vallà ¨s), Barcelona, Spain. http://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/11/4/4043

Coffee Trends in Singapore Essay

†¢In 2011, the total volume growth of coffee was 5%, which was a similar trend as in 2010 due to the continuous strong economic growth in Singapore. Due to the high density of on-trade channels including chained local coffee shops such as Ya Kun Kaya Toast and Old Town White Coffee and chained Western-style specialised coffee shops such as Starbucks and Gloria Jean’s Coffee, coffee drinking culture has penetrated into the Singaporean market. The manufacturers have also launched high-quality products in the off-trade channel. Hence, consumers are seeking to have the authentic high-quality brewed coffee at home. COMPETITIVE LANDSCAPE †¢Nestlà © Singapore Pte Ltd continued to post the leading position in terms of off-trade value sales with a 40% value share. This success could be attributed to its constant research and development as well as the frequent promotional campaigns due to the companies’ economic scale, which can keep attracting the consumers. Due to the companies’ global strong presence, the company develops not only instant coffee products but also enhances the fresh coffee category by introducing the coffee machines and fresh coffee pods such as Nespresso and Nescafà © Dolce Gusto. PROSPECTS †¢Total volume of coffee is expected to increase by 2% CAGR over the foreacst period. Considering the review period, this growth is slightly conservative, which reflects the current uncertain global economic condition. Although local consumers are becoming more affluent and have more disposable income, their consumption patterns are likely to follow the economic outlook in Singapore, which will reflect, in particular, the growth in on-trade volume.

Definition and Examples of a Dangling Modifier

A dangling modifier is a word or phrase (often a participle or participial phrase) that doesnt actually  modify  the word its intended to modify. In some cases, a dangling modifier refers to a word that doesnt even appear in the sentence. It is also called a dangling participle, hanging modifier, floater, floating modifier, or misrelated participle. Dangling modifiers are commonly (though not universally) regarded as grammatical errors. One way to correct a dangling modifier is to add a noun phrase that the modifier can logically describe. Another way to correct this grammatical error is to make the modifier part of a dependent clause. Fixing Dangling Modifiers Purdue OWL  says that to fix dangling modifiers, its helpful to first explore how a modifier should read in a grammatically correct sentence, giving this example: Having finished the assignment,  Jill  turned on the TV. This sentence is correctly composed because  Jill  is the subject, and the phrase having finished the assignment  describes Jill. By contrast, a sentence with a dangling modifier might read: Having finished the assignment,  the TV  was turned on. In this sentence, the phrase having finished the assignment is the dangling modifier. A TV  cannot  finish a homework assignment (at least not with the current state of technology), so the dangling modifier doesnt seem to modify anything in the sentence. You know from the previous sentence that the phrase is supposed to modify  Jill. Its Jill, after all, who finished the homework assignment. Purdue OWL offers another example of a dangling modifier: Having arrived late for practice,  a written excuse  was needed. Who arrived late? Purdue asks. Presumably, a  written excuse  cant arrive anywhere. To correct the dangling modifier, the writer needs to add something to the sentence, namely, the person who arrived late: Having arrived late for practice,  the team captain  needed a written excuse. In this correctly composed sentence, the reader knows that  the team captain  arrived late and needs a written excuse. Having thus added the noun—or person who did the action—the writer corrected the sentence and fixed the error of the dangling modifier. The Problem With Phrases Your Dictionary  notes that phrases—compared to a word or two—often confuse inexperienced writers when it comes to modifiers. For example: The  very happy  boy ran fast. Its easy to see that  happy  is an  adjective  that modifies  boy, while  very  is an  adverb  that modifies  happy.  A writer would be unlikely to unintentionally omit the subject of the sentence and write: The  very happy  ran fast. In this example, these words would constitute a  dangling modifier  because they dont modify anything in the sentence: The writer has removed the subject  boy. When it comes to phrases, however, its much easier to unintentionally create a dangling modifier, says Your Dictionary, as in: Hoping to garner favor, my parents were unimpressed with the gift. Note that the sentence does  have a subject,  my parents. The phrase  hoping to garner favor,  then, seems to modify the subject,  my parents.  But on closer inspection, note that the phrase is actually a dangling modifier.  The  parents  were not hoping to garner favor with themselves, so its left to the reader to wonder:  Who  is trying to garner favor? To fix the dangling modifier, add a subject that tells the reader  who  is hoping to impress the parents: Hoping to garner favor, my new boyfriend brought my parents a gift that failed to impress them. The phrase  hoping to garner favor  now describes  my boyfriend, so it is no longer a dangling modifier. To fully fix the sentence, the writer also added a verb,  brought, to describe what the boyfriend was doing and a  restrictive clause,  that failed to impress them, explaining how the gift went over with the parents. The Clue of  Passive Voice Sometimes—though not always—you can tell that a sentence contains a  dangling modifier  if it includes passive voice, as in this example from  Grammar Bytes:   Hungry, the leftover pizza was devoured. The single-word adjective,  hungry, is the dangling modifier in this sentence. A pizza, after all, cannot be  hungry  or  devour  itself. So  who  was hungry? The sentence needs a subject for the modifier to describe, such as these possibilities: Hungry,  we  devoured the leftover pizza.Hungry, the team devoured the leftover pizza.Hungry, I devoured the pizza. All of these sentences are correct and eliminate the dangling modifier. In the first, the modifier hungry describes we; in the second, it describes the team; and, in the third, it describes I. With any of the sentences, the reader clearly understands  who  is hungry. Dangling Participles As noted,  dangling modifiers  are also called  dangling participles. A  participle  is a  verbal  that typically ends in -ing  (the  present participle)  or -ed  (the  past participle). By itself, a  participle can function as an  adjective  (as in the  sleeping  baby or the  damaged  pump). You can sometimes tell that you have a  dangling modifier—or dangling participle—by looking to see if the sentence contains such an  -ing  verbal, says  Writing Explained, giving this example: Reading the regulations, the dog did not enter the park. The participial phrase  reading the regulations  is the dangling modifier because it does not actually modify anything in the sentence. A dog cannot read regulations, so the word or words that  reading the regulations  modifies have been omitted from the sentence, says the writing and grammar website.

Socioeconomic Status Of Children s Linguistic Experience...

Critically examine the relation of socioeconomic status to children’s linguistic experience and development Socioeconomic status (SES) is – primarily – the product of income, education and occupation; SES is typically banded into three categories (low, middle and high). SES and child development are multifaceted variables; many factors that affect child development covary with SES – as a result of this, direct cause-effect relationships are often difficult to uncover (Hoff, 2003). Although SES is predominantly measured by income, education and occupation, it encompasses far more than these rudimentary quantitative factors (Farah et al. 2006), including associated differences in physical and mental health (Adler et al. 1994). This essay will explore SES influences on linguistic experience, examining the impact of SES on linguistic environment and parental input; we find that SES (or, variance in parental input according to SES) impacts syntactic comprehension in children. We consider the effects of SES on linguistic development (primarily cognitively and in terms of chi ldren’s lexical output); we find that SES has been shown to effect cognitive systems that play key roles in linguistic development. The critical period of child language acquisition remains of most interest, as this is where the brain is most malleable and receptive to change – however, later language development will also be addressed. Interpretations of findings and results in this essay stem from a nativistShow MoreRelatedChilds Real Time Referential Processing Development1480 Words   |  6 Pagesabilities in children in order to understand how processing works as well as what contributes to levels of efficiency. Some factors that effect proficiency of this ability includes exposure to infant-directed speech, onset of exposure to first language, socioeconomic status, as well as various individual differences such as language impairments and/or deafness. 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As educator we have to be instrumental in creating students to become independent effective readers who comprehend well. In order to do this, students have to be provided with basic reading

Mary Shelley - 1066 Words

Mary Shelley was born on August 30, 1797, becoming a distinguished, though often neglected, literary figure during the Romanticism Era. Mary was the only child of Mary Wollstonecraft, a famous feminist, but after her birth, Wollstonecraft passed away (Harris). Similar to Mary’s book Frankenstein, both her and Victor’s mothers die when they are at a very young age. Mary’s father was William Godwin, an English philosopher who also wrote novels that would inspire Mary in the late years of her life (Holmes). Many years later, Mary would get married to Percy Shelley although he had been previously engaged (â€Å"Shelley† Exploring). Although Mary’s mother never lived long enough for her to see her parents together, they were profound philosophers in†¦show more content†¦The only remaining child Mary possessed was a son named William (â€Å"Shelley† Exploring). Similar to her book Frankenstein, Mary was left with her last child William aft er many deaths just as Victor Frankenstein only had his little brother Ernest to support him in the end. After the trauma that had struck the Shelley family, Percy wanted Mary to live her life to the fullest and not give up. Percy wanted Mary to have what she most yearned for that was growth, love and freedom. Similar to the novel Frankenstein, the monster that Victor Frankenstein creates wishes for the same that Mary had coveted her whole life. (Harris) At the age of twenty-four Mary’s husband drowned leaving her with her son William and no money (â€Å"Shelley† Exploring). In the novel Frankenstein, Victors wife whom he had just married, died shortly after leaving him with just his father and Ernest as Mary Shelley only had William and her father. The tragic events that occurred in Mary’s life seem to pass down into her novel Frankenstein in a similar fashion from which they happened. 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This was the idea of ‘Luigi Galvani’, he suggested that there was a form of electricityRead MoreThe Doppelganger By Mary Shelley1219 Words   |  5 Pagesunsetting physical increasing – is a fundamental part of various Gothic stories, and verifiably one the most important strings of Mary Shelley s Frankenstein.. While Aija Ozolins fights, this subject of a second self constitutes the manager wellspring of the novel s unmoving power’ (Ozolins 104). This article hopes to examine and take a look at the possibilities that Shelley builds up the Monster as Frankenstein s particular Doppelgà ¤nger and the fellowship between these two, and moreover pondering

Shadows of Night The Fear of a Child Free Essays

In Annie Dillard’s book, An American Child; chapter two describes the fear she had as a child, of the night shadows that would appear on her walls. Dillard was five years old and shared a bedroom with her little sister Amy, who was two at the time. When Dillard describes her little sister sleeping, I can picture her clearly in my mind. We will write a custom essay sample on Shadows of Night: The Fear of a Child or any similar topic only for you Order Now Dillard writes; â€Å"even at two she composed herself attractively with her sheet folded tidily, under her outstretched arm, her head laid lightly on an unwrinkled pillow, her thick curls spread evenly. (21) Another wonderful example of her descriptive writing is when she is telling of the â€Å"thing† that she is so afraid of at night in her bedroom. Dillard states that, â€Å"the damned thing entered the room by flattening itself against the open door and sliding in. It was transparent, luminous oblong; I could see the door whiten at its touch. † (21) This â€Å"thing† that Dillard also refers to as â€Å"it† also had sounds of a â€Å"rising roar† (21) as it moved across her walls. Dillard finally figured out that her â€Å"thing was a passing car whose windshield reflected the corner streetlight outside. † (21) It wasn’t until she was outside one day, that she heard the familiar sound that she hears at night when the â€Å"thing† appears on her walls. Dillard’s writing shows how the human mind and imagination can exaggerate even the simplest things, until we can see in front of us what the true reality is. How to cite Shadows of Night: The Fear of a Child, Papers

Jawaharlal Nehru free essay sample

Jawaharlal Nehru was born on 14 November 1889 in Allahabad in British India. His father, Motilal Nehru (1861–1931), a wealthy barrister who belonged to the Kashmiri Pandit community,[9] served twice as President of the Indian National Congress during the Independence Struggle. His mother, Swaruprani Thussu (1868–1938), who came from a well-known Kashmiri Brahmin family settled in Lahore, was Motilals second wife, the first having died in child birth. Jawaharlal was the eldest of three children, two of whom were girls. The elder sister, Vijaya Lakshmi, later became the first female president of the United Nations General Assembly. The youngest sister, Krishna Hutheesing, became a noted writer and authored several books on her brother. Nehru described his childhood as a sheltered and uneventful one. He grew up in an atmosphere of privilege at wealthy homes including a large palatial estate called the Anand Bhawan. His father had him educated at home by private governesses and tutors. Demands for dominion status was rejected by the British in 1929. Nehru assumed the presidency of the Congress party during the Lahore session on 29 December 1929 and introduced a successful resolution calling for complete independence. Nehru drafted the Indian declaration of independence, which stated: We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people, as of any other people, to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life, so that they may have full opportunities of growth. We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it. The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses, and has ruined India economically, politically, culturally and spiritually. We believe therefore, that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or complete independence. [33] At midnight on New Years Eve 1929, Nehru hoisted the tricolour flag of India upon the banks of the Ravi in Lahore. A pledge of independence was read out, which included a readiness to withhold taxes. The massive gathering of public attending the ceremony was asked if they agreed with it, and the vast majority of people were witnessed to raise their hands in approval. 172 Indian members of central and provincial legislatures resigned in support of the resolution and in accordance with Indian public sentiment. The Congress asked the people of India to observe 26 January as Independence Day. The flag of India was hoisted publicly across India by Congress volunteers, nationalists and the public. Plans for a mass civil disobedience were also underway. After the Lahore session of the Congress in 1929, Nehru gradually emerged as the paramount leader of the Indian independence movement. Gandhi stepped back into a more spiritual role. Although Gandhi did not officially designate Nehru his political heir until 1942, the country as early as the mid-1930s saw in Nehru the natural successor to Gandhi. Civil disobedience Nehru and most of the Congress leaders were initially ambivalent about Gandhis plan to begin civil disobedience with a satyagraha aimed at the British salt tax. After the protest gathered steam, they realized the power of salt as a symbol. Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response, â€Å"it seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released. †[34] Nehru was arrested on 14 April 1930 while entraining from Allahabad for Raipur. He had earlier, after addressing a huge meeting and leading a vast procession, ceremoniously manufactured some contraband salt. He was charged with breach of the salt law, tried summarily behind prison walls and sentenced to six months of imprisonment. Nehru nominated Gandhi to succeed him as Congress President during his absence in jail, but Gandhi declined, and Nehru then nominated his father as his successor. With Nehrus arrest the civil disobedience acquired a new tempo, and arrests, firing on crowds and lathi charges grew to be ordinary occurrences. The Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention of the world. Indian, British, and world opinion increasingly began to recognize the legitimacy of the claims by the Congress party for independence. Nehru considered the salt satyagraha the high water mark of his association with Gandhi,[35] and felt that its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians: Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery. But the real importance, to my mind, lay in the effect they had on our own people, and especially the village masses. Non-cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self-respect and self-reliance. They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole. It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress, under Gandhis leadership, must have the credit for it. [36] World War II and Quit India When World war II started, Viceroy Linlithgow had unilaterally declared India a belligerent on the side of the Britain, without consulting the elected Indian representatives. Nehru hurried back from a visit to China, announcing that, in a conflict between democracy and Fascism, â€Å"our sympathies must inevitably be on the side of democracy I should like India to play its full part and throw all her resources into the struggle for a new order. † After much deliberation the Congress under Nehru informed the government that it would cooperate with the British but on certain conditions. First, Britain must give an assurance of full independence for India after the war and allow the election of a constituent assembly to frame a new constitution; second, although the Indian armed forces would remain under the British Commander-in-Chief, Indians must be included immediately in the central government and given a chance to share power and responsibility. When Nehru presented Lord Linlithgow with the demands, he chose not to take them seriously. A deadlock was reached. â€Å"The same old game is played again,† Nehru wrote bitterly to Gandhi, â€Å"the background is the same, the various epithets are the same and the actors are the same and the results must be the same. † On 23 October 1939, the Congress condemned the Viceroy’s attitude and called upon the Congress ministries in the various provinces to resign in protest. Before this crucial announcement, Nehru urged Jinnah and the Muslim League to join the protest but the latter declined. In March 1940 Jinnah passed what would come to be known as the â€Å"Pakistan Resolution,† declaring â€Å"Muslims are a nation according to any definition of a nation, and they must have their homelands, their territory and their State. † This state was to be known as Pakistan, meaning â€Å"Land of the Pure. † Nehru angrily declared that â€Å"all the old problems pale into insignificance before the latest stand taken by the Muslim League leader in Lahore. † Linlithgow made Nehru an offer on 8 October 1940. It stated that Dominion status for India was the objective of the British government. However, it referred neither to a date nor method of accomplishment. Only Jinnah got something more precise. The British would not contemplate transferring power to a Congress-dominated national government the authority of which was †denied by large and powerful elements in India’s national life. † In October 1940, Gandhi and Nehru, abandoning their original stand of supporting Britain, decided to launch a limited civil disobedience campaign in which leading advocates of Indian independence were selected to participate one by one. Nehru was arrested and sentenced to four years’ imprisonment. After spending a little more than a year in jail, he was released, along with other Congress prisoners, three days before the bombing of Pearl Harbor in Hawaii. When the Japanese carried their attack through Burma (now Myanmar) to the borders of India in the spring of 1942, the British government, faced by this new military threat, decided to make some overtures to India, as Nehru had originally desired. Prime Minister Winston Churchill dispatched Sir Stafford Cripps, a member of the war Cabinet who was known to be politically close to Nehru and also knew Jinnah, with proposals for a settlement of the constitutional problem. As soon as he arrived he discovered that India was more deeply divided than he had imagined. Nehru, eager for a compromise, was hopeful. Gandhi was not. Jinnah had continued opposing the Congress. â€Å"Pakistan is our only demand,† declared the Muslim League newspaper â€Å"Dawn† and by God we will have it. † Cripps’s mission failed as Gandhi would accept nothing less than independence. Relations between Nehru and Gandhi cooled over the latters refusal to cooperate with Cripps but the two later reconcilled. On 15 January 1941 Gandhi had stated: Some say Pandit Nehru and I were estranged. It will require much more than difference of opinion to estrange us. We had differences from the time we became co-workers and yet I have said for some years and say so now that not Rajaji but Jawaharlal will be my successor. [42] Gandhi called on the British to leave India; Nehru, though reluctant to embarrass the allied war effort, had no alternative but to join Gandhi. Following the Quit India resolution passed by the Congress party in Bombay (now Mumbai) on 8 Aug 1942, the entire Congress working committee, including Gandhi and Nehru, was arrested and imprisoned. Nehru emerged from this—his ninth and last detention—only on 15 June 1945. During the period where all of the Congress leadership were in jail, the Muslim League under Jinnah grew in power. In April 1943, the League captured the governments of Bengal and, a month later, that of the North West Frontier Province. In none of these provinces had the League previously had a majority – only the arrest of Congress members made it possible. With all the Muslim dominated provinces except the Punjab under Jinnah’s control, the artificial concept of a separate Muslim State was turning into a reality. However by 1944, Jinnah’s power and prestige were on the wane. A general sympathy towards the jailed Congress leaders was developing among Muslims, and much of the blame for the disastrous Bengal famine of 1943–4 during which two million died, had been laid on the shoulders of the province’s Muslim League government. The numbers at Jinnah’s meetings, once counted in thousands soon numbered only a few hundreds. In despair, Jinnah left the political scene for a stay in Kashmir. His prestige was restored unwittingly by Gandhi, who had been released from prison on medical grounds in May 1944 and had met Jinnah in Bombay in September. There he offered the Muslim leader a plebiscite in the Muslim areas after the war to see whether they wanted to separate from the rest of India. Essentially, it was an acceptance of the principle of Pakistan – but not in so many words. Jinnah demanded that the exact words be said; Gandhi refused and the talks broke down. Jinnah however had greatly strengthened his own position and that of the League. The most influential member of Congress had been seen to negotiate with him on equal terms.